Studies on some spices and herbs: Chemical composition, health benefits and functional properties

A comprehensive study was carried out to assess the microbiological, nutritional, biochemical and essential oil characteristics of three Egyptian traditional cultivars seeds, namely, cumin (Cuminum cyminum) and coriander (Coriandum sativum) spices as well as basil whole herb (Ocimum basilicum) collected from different Egyptian export centers as being ready for export. The found values for humidity in dry seeds of cumin (7.4%) and coriander (6.4%), as well as total ash and ash insoluble in acid (in cumin 7.7% and 0.74%, but in coriander 5.3% and 0.55%, respectively), were lower than the maximum limits indicated by the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES) and by International Standards Organization (ISO) for cumin and coriander seeds. Analysis of essential minerals in seed spices and herbs indicated that they were rich in K, Ca, Na, Fe and Zn. The total bacterial count was low content in seeds of cumin and coriander as well as fresh whole basil herb. The microbiological load in all tested seed spices and herbs was found lower than those indicated by the ES and ISO for cumin and coriander seeds. Yields in hydro-distilled essential oils (EOs) were the highest in cumin seeds (3.762%), while both coriander and basil herbs had lower amounts (0.285% and 0.686%, respectively). EOs contents were found higher than the maximum limits for cumin (1.5% - 2.5% on a dry weight basis), but within the limits for coriander (0.1% - 0.5% on a dry weight basis) as indicated by the ES and ISO for cumin and coriander seed oils. Gas chromatography of extracted EOs from seeds of cumin and coriander as well as basil herbs indicated the presence of 41, 35 and 47 compounds, respectively, where cumin aldehyde was the major component in cumin volatiles but was linalool in volatiles of both coriander seeds and basil herbs. EOs of basil herbs grown in Egypt were of the high linalool chemotype which was characterized by high contents of linalool and relatively lower amounts of eugenol. However, the major compounds in the three tested EOs from seeds or herbs grown in Egypt are in accordance with literature reports from different parts of the world. Volatile oil components in EOs of the three tested Egyptian spices and herbs were classified into groups, based on the relative area (%). The proportion of the major and the other main components in EOs from seeds of cumin and coriander cultivars were within the ranges indicated by both the ES and ISO for cumin seed oils (cumin aldehyde between 15% - 46%) and for coriander seed oils (linalool between 65% - 78%). The aim of the present work was to Assessment study certain commonly used Egyptian spices and herbal products for characterizing their physical, biochemical and microbiological properties.

The use of spices and herbs for their flavoring, preservative and health-promoting properties has been known since ancient times. Early records indicate that they were used as medicinal in ancient Egypt and Assyria and as food preservatives in ancient Rome and Greece. Spices and herbs, commonly known as aromatic plants, are an important group of agricultural commodities being used by many civilizations all over the world to add flavor, taste and nutritional values and increase shelf life to food as well as heal various physical, mental, emotional problems and to restore human health [1]. However, each spice or herb is characterized by a peculiar quail-quantitative composition for its essential oil and all of these oils contain compounds with established biological activity [2]. Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, family Umbelliferae) is among the large number of spices used to flavor foods and beverages in the world, especially in India and Mediterranean regions and occupies a place of prominence [3]. Cumin seeds possess an aromatic odor and have a spicy and bitter taste and largely used in the Egyptian kitchen and are locally known as “Kammoun” [4]. Coriander (Coriandum sativum L., family Apiaceae) is among many aromatic plants that actually gathered when they have finished flowering, with the leaves being referred to as an herb and the dried seeds as a spice [5]. Although the plant can be grown throughout the year, coriander is processed to increase its palatability and profitability and facilitate international trade where the processing of fruits and leaves of coriander is the best way to preserve this herb [1]. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L., Lamiaceae family) or sweet basil is one of the most important well-known herbs to many cultures [6] and is a very versatile and popular annual herb with abundantly aromatic leaves which are used fresh or dried [7]. Basil is called “Reyhan” in Turkish [8]. The word “Reyhan” has been mentioned in two suras, Ar-Rehman and Al-Waqia (once in each) of the holy Qura’n [9]. In fact, basil is multipurpose plant species used as a decorative, seasoning and medicinal plant and used to relish many kinds of foods [10,11]. Besides being used as spices and herbs in the Egyptian trade, cumin, coriander and basil are widely cultivated for export abroad due to the continuous and increased demands for their products and their distinguished economic importance throughout the world [12]. They are greatly valued as medicinal plants and have attracted the enormous attention of researchers worldwide to experimentally validate their pharmacological activities and therapeutic use as they have been documented in several indigenous healing systems [13].

Therefore, the present study was launched to highlight some chemical, nutritional and microbiological characteristics of seeds and essential oils for the Egyptian traditional cultivars of cumin and coriander spices as well as for basil herbs collected from different Egyptian export centers as being ready for export.

Materials

Cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum) and coriander seeds (Coriandum sativum) were obtained from an Egyptian local store market for bulk and retail spices commerce and their export (Harraz market for Seeds and Pesticides, Bab El-Khalksquare, Cairo, Egypt).

Basil herbs (Ocimum basilicum) were obtained from the Egyptian Baladi basil cultivar which is a hybrid between native and American basil types at a ratio of 2:1. Such cultivar was grown on a private farm (run with the organic plantation system) at Abshoway Village in El-Fayoum Governorate, Egypt.

Preparation of spices and herbs

Spices of cumin and coriander seeds were already prepared into dry seed form in the same aforementioned purchasing place, as usually practiced in Egypt for the preparation of dry spices for export abroad. Basil plants were cultivated, and collected and the aerial parts of herbs were harvested at the start of the flowering period and prepared in the aforementioned private farm under strict management and precaution as usually practiced for the preparation of green basil herbs. Seeds were ground to powder form and sieved while basil herbs were minced into very small pieces.

Analytical methods

Determination of chemical composition of spices and herbs: Moisture, crude protein, ether extract, total ash, insoluble ash in acid and crude fibers were determined as described by A.O.A.C. methods [14]. Total carbohydrates were determined by difference [15].

Determination of essential minerals:

a) Method of digestion for mineral analysis: Digestion of dry seed spices and fresh herbs for mineral analysis by photometric and colorimetric was performed according to A.O.A.C. methods [14].

Flame photometric determination: The concentration of potassium, calcium, and sodium in digested ashes of fresh and dry spices and herbs according to methods described previously by Brown and Lillel [16].

Spectrophotometric determination of phosphorus: Determination was performed according to the method of Murphy and Riley [17].

b) Atomic absorption spectrophotometric determination: Iron, zinc, manganese, copper, and magnesium were determined in ashed samples of dry seed spices and fresh herbs using the atomic absorption Spectrophotometer (Model AA 4000) according to A.O.A.C. method [14].

Determination of microbiological characteristics

The microbiological examinations of dried seed spices and fresh herbs samples included the determination of total aerobic counts, total anaerobic bacteria, yeast and mold counts and Coliform group which were determined according to APHA [18], while detection for Salmonella sp. was performed according to IAEA [19].

Extraction and composition of essential oils

Methods for extraction of essential oils: The essential oils of dried cumin and coriander seeds and fresh basil herbs were extracted through hydro distillation by using a Clevenger-type apparatus according to [20].

a) Determination of yield in essential oils: The percentage of volatile oil extracted was calculated on a fresh and dry weight basis in replicate distillations from the tested spices and herbs according to the following Equation:

$\text{Volatile oil }\left(\%\right)=\frac{\text{Weight of volatile oil recovered in the receiver}}{\text{Weight of sample}}\times 100$

The volatile oil was removed from the receiver with ether and dried overnight using anhydrous sodium sulfate before removing the ether. The obtained volatile oil was stored in the dark at a temperature of − 18 ˚C until required for analysis.

b) Gas chromatography of essential oils:

1. Apparatus and conditions for separation

Volatile compounds in essential oils of dried cumin and coriander seeds and fresh basil herbs were identified by comparison with Kovats gas chromatographic retention index [21] and by the mass spectral fragmentation pattern of each GC component compared with authentic compounds. Aga’s chromatograph (Hewlett Packard model 6890) equipped with a DB5 capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d. × 0.25 µm df.), FID detector was used. The analysis was carried out under the following conditions: injector temperature of 200 ⁰C and detector temperature of 250 ⁰C. The column was programmed from 35 ⁰C to 220 ⁰C at 30 ⁰C/min and held for 40 min. The helium carrier gas flow rate was 29 cm/sec. Injections were in the splitless mode.

2. Identification and quantitation

Kovat’s indices were determined by co-injection of the sample with a solution containing homologous series of n-hydrocarbons (C6 - C26) under the same conditions as described above. The separated components were identified by matching with N1ST mass-spectral library data and by comparison of Kovat’s indices with those of authentic components and with published data [22]. The quantitative determination was carried out based on peak area integration.

Comparative chemical composition of tested spices and herbs

The fresh basil leaves showed the highest moisture content, which reached 80.35 ± 0.12, compared to samples of cumin and coriander seeds (7.44 ± 0.13 and 6.47 ± 0.16, respectively) (Table 1). Moisture values for dry cumin seeds and coriander as collected from the Egyptian export centers were found to be lower than the maximum humidity limits for cumin seeds (9% - 13% according to quality grades) and for coriander (9%) which were indicated by the Egyptian Specification Standards for dry seeds of cumin and coriander (ES: 1930/2008 and ES: 2095/2005, respectively) and by International Standards Organization [(ISO: 9301/2003) and (ISO: 3516/1997), respectively]. No Egyptian Specification Standards or International Standards Organization is established yet for fresh basil herbs.

With regard to cumin dry seeds, although higher moisture values were reported of 7% - 22% [23] and of 12.8% [24], the maximum humidity in cumin seeds must be no more than 9%, which confirm with the International Standards Specifications [25].

The found moisture values for coriander seeds were comparable to values of 6.65% [26] and 6.2% [5]. Various studies abroad indicated that the moisture content of fresh whole basil herbs was found to be in the range of 80% - 88.25%, which is consistent or slightly higher than that found in the present results [27,28].

The second major component of all samples was carbohydrate content. On an is basis, coriander seeds showed the highest total carbohydrates (62.32%) followed by cumin (55.58%). In contrast, when the calculation was made on a dry weight basis, fresh whole basil herbs showed the highest total carbohydrates (68.07%). The found carbohydrates values were higher than those reported in the literature for cumin seeds at 48.01% [29] for coriander seeds at 24.0% [30] or 52.10% [31] and whole fresh basil of 7.0% [32], of 7.02% [33], of 6.6% [34] and of 9.3% [27].

Protein content, on both fresh weight and dry weight basis, was the highest in cumin seeds (18.40% and 19.88%, respectively), followed by coriander seeds (15.39% and 16.46%, respectively) while fresh basil herb showed the lowest content (1.78% and 9.04%, respectively). The found protein content values were comparable to those reported in the literature for cumin seeds at 19% [35], 18.7% [24], and 17.7% [29], but higher (15.7%) than that reported others [36].

However, protein values were found higher than those reported by many researchers for coriander seeds at 11.49%, 11%, 11.75%, 12.58%, and 12.58% as well as for basil herbs either on a dry weight basis of 22.2% or on a fresh weight basis of 3.3%, 3.16%, 3.8% and 4.2% [1,5,26,33,34,37-39].

With the same trend of protein, cumin seeds had the highest ether extract content, on both fresh weight and dry weight basis (11.44% and 12.36%, respectively), followed by dried coriander seeds (10.84% and 11.59%, respectively) while fresh basil herb showed the lowest content (1.08% and 5.50%, respectively). Comparable literature values to those found in the present study for ether extract were reported for cumin seeds at 10% [40], for coriander seeds at 9.8% or 9.12% [1] and for whole basil herbs on the fresh basis of 1.2% or 1.05% [34].

Crude fiber content data, on both fresh weight and dry weight basis, indicated that dry coriander seeds exhibited the highest values (27.23% and 29.11%, respectively) followed by cumin seeds (21.82% and 23.57%, respectively) while fresh basil herbs had the lowest content (2.89% and 14.71%, respectively).

High amounts of fibers than those found in seeds of the Egyptian cumin cultivar were reported in Pakistani cultivars at 37.2% depending upon the varieties. The found crude fiber values for seeds of the tested coriander cultivar compared well with those reported of 28.43% for Italian cultivars or nearly 30% [36,38]. In contrast, a higher value (37.14%) for Indian cultivars was found [1].

Crude fibers contents in the tested whole basil herbs, on the fresh basis, were found (2.89%) higher than those reported of 2.0% or 1.0%, but lower on dry basis (14.71%) than 19.07% or 33.3% [27,34,39].

Total ash content data, on a fresh weight basis, indicated that dry cumin seeds had the highest values (7.14%) followed by coriander seeds (4.98%) while fresh basil herbs exhibited the lowest content (3.42%), but when the calculation was made on a dry weight basis the fresh basil herbs showed the highest total Ash value (17.39 %) followed by cumin seeds (7.71%), while coriander seeds showed the lowest content (5.33%).

In contrast, ash insoluble in acid content showed different results, on both fresh weight and dry weight basis, where cumin had the highest values (0.69% and 0.74%, respectively) followed by coriander (0.51% and 0.55%, respectively) while fresh basil herb showed the lowest content (0.10% and 0.52%, respectively).

The found total ash and insoluble in acid values were found lower than the maximum limits indicated for dry cumin seeds (8.5% - 12% and 1.5% - 4% according to quality grades, respectively) by the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 1930/2008) and by the International Standards Organization (ISO: 9301/2003) and those indicated for dry coriander seeds (7% and 1.5% for all quality grades, respectively) by the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 2095/2005) and by the International Standards Organization (ISO: 2255/1996).

Moreover, values found for total ash and ash insoluble in acid were lower than those reported for dry cumin seeds by others of 9.5% total ash and a maximum of 2% acid insoluble ashes [25] as well as that value reported for coriander seeds grown in India [31] of 14.02%. In contrast, the found values for total ash in basil herbs consisted well with those indicated in literature of 3.32%, but lower than those reported on a fresh weight basis of 2.0% and of 1.8% and higher than those reported by others of 10.18% or 8.7% [39,41] on a dry weight basis.

It should be mentioned that the chemical composition of the various spices and herbs were reported to vary significantly according to the variety and species in plant herb, cultivation practices, plantation season, number and time of cuts, plant development stage, and the climatic conditions [30].

Comparative content in essential minerals of tested spices and herbs

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in monitoring the element contents of spices and herbs. Analysis of essential minerals (Table 2) indicated that the first major macro essential element in both seed spices was K, but was Ca in basil herb, while Fe was the first major micro essential element in both seed spices and basil herb. However, in cumin seeds, the level of macro essential elements felt in the magnitude of the order: K > P > Mg > Ca > Na but the level of micro essential elements was Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu. In coriander seeds, the level of macro essential elements felt in the magnitude of the order: K > P > Na > Ca > Mg but the level of micro essential elements was Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu. In contrast, the level of macro essential elements in basil herb felt in the magnitude of the order: Ca > K > Mg > P > Na, but the level of micro essential elements was Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu. Literature reports about mineral content in cumin seeds in coriander and in basil [42-44] are in accordance with the obtained data that the three tested spices and herbs are rich in K, Ca, Na, Fe and Zn. Thus, they could be considered sources of fairly good amounts of these minerals. Moreover, it was stated that these spices and herbs are rich sources of iron and zinc compared to other cereals (Milan, et al. 2008).

Comparative microbiological characteristics of spices and herbs

Data in Table 3 showed that total bacterial count was low content in seeds of cumin and coriander as well as-fresh whole basil herb, where its log number was 3.72, 3.73 and 3.78, respectively. However, anaerobic bacteria, molds and yeasts and Coliform groups were of higher content. The log number of the anaerobic bacterial count was: 3.65, 3.55 and 3.47 in cumin, coriander and basil, respectively, for molds and yeasts were: 2.97, 2.39 and 2.39, respectively. In addition, the log number of the Coliform group count was: 3.00, 3.14 and 3.32, respectively. On the other hand, the three tested seed spices and herbs (cumin, coriander and basil) were nil from Salmonella spp. bacteria. The microbiological load in all tested seed spices and herbs was lower than those indicated by the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 1930/2008 and ES: 2095/2005) as well as by the International Standards Organization (ISO: 9301/2003 and ISO: 2255/1996) for cumin and coriander seeds, respectively.

Comparative yield in essential oils extracted from spices and herbs

Yields of the different essential oils (EOs), extracted by hydrodistillation (Table 4) showed that, on a dry weight basis, cumin seeds had the highest amount of volatiles (3.762% ± 0.18%), while both coriander and basil samples had lower amounts (0.285% ± 0.01% and 0.686% ± 0.03%, respectively).

Furthermore, EOs contents of the tested cumin seeds are in the range reported in the literature in Bulgaria at 5.3%, in China at 2.608% to 4.062%, and in Pakistan at 2.52% ± 0.11% [45,46]. However, it is higher than the maximum limits (1.5% - 2.5% on dry weight basis according to quality grades) as indicated by the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 1930/2008) and by the International Standards Organization (ISO: 9301/2003) for cumin seed oil. Moreover, it is higher than other cultivars grown in different locations in Iran at 1.4% - 2.2%, in Turkey at 1.4% to 2.8%, in Tunisia at 1.6%, in India at 1.21% or 1% [47-51].

Results indicated that the EOs content of coriander seeds cultivars grown in Egypt is higher and/or comparable to many varieties or cultivars grown in different locations (in India of 0.5% - 1%, in Pakistan of 0.15% and 0.03% to 2.7%, in Iran of 0.1% to 0.36%, in Bulgaria of 0.1% - 0.5%, in Argentina of 0.40%, in Turkey between 0.03% and 2.6% [52-56]. However, it is within the limits (0.1% - 0.5% on dry weight ba-sis according to quality grades) indicated by both the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 2095/2005) and by International Standards Organization (ISO: 2255/1996) for coriander seeds.

The found EOs content of whole basil herbs from the cultivar grown in Egypt, was sometimes either higher or comparable to many varieties or cultivars grown in different locations (in Turkey of 0.15% - 1.59%, in India of 0.2% in stems to 1.2% in leaves on a fresh weight basis, in Algeria of 0.4%, in Iran of 0.5% , in Pakistan of 0.5% to 0.8%, in Sudan of 0.33% to 0.47% in fresh leaves, in Romania 0.2% and 1%, of 0.171% in Omani basil [57-64].

It should be mentioned that yields of EOs extracted from spices and herbs were found to vary, not only with varieties, season, cuttings and agricultural practices but also according to parts of herbs (whole, flowers, leaves and stems for basil herbs and for seed spices [65-67].

Comparative composition of Eos extracted from spices and herbs

Chemical identification of the oil constituents dry seeds of cumin and coriander as well as fresh whole basil herbs collected from different Egyptian export centers as being ready for export abroad was conducted using Gas Chromatography (GC) based on their Retention Indices (RI). The volatile oil components in EOs of the three tested Egyptian spices and herbs were classified into groups, based on the relative area %.

GC identification of essential oil composition of cumin seeds: GC chromatograms indicated the presence of 41 compounds, which accounted for 98.78% of EOs hydrodistilled from seeds of the cumin cultivar grown in Egypt (Table 5). The major compounds in cumin essential oil were cumin aldehyde (35.25%), tetradecene (12.25%), γ-terpenene (12%), β-ocimene (9.72%), p-mentha-2-en-ol (9%), α-terpinyl acetate (5.32%), α-terpinolene (3%), Lmonine (0.5%), myrcene (0.2%), β-pinene (0.9%) and α-pinene (0.19%).

Results indicated that the major component and also its proportion in the tested cumin Eos resembled those values found by various investigators in different locations in the world e.g., 36.31% in Chinese cultivars, 36% in Bulgarian cultivars, 39.48% in Tunisian variety [68]. However, there were differences in the proportion of the major component (22.76% in the Chinese cultivar, 27.7% in the Pakistani cultivar, 30.2% and in a number of separated compounds in GC chromatograms (21 components in the Tunisian cultivar, 19 components or 38 compounds and also the identity of the major component as found in china, in Tunisia and in Iran [68-70].

However, the name and proportion of the major and other main components in cumin EOs were within the ranges indicated by both the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 2034/2007) and by International Standards Organization (ISO: 9301/2003) for essential oils of cumin seeds (cumin aldehyde between 15% - 46% of oil and other components, with the exception of the proportion of β-pinene).

The volatile oil components in EOs from the tested Egyptian cultivar were classified into four groups (based on the relative area %), viz. mono terpenes [M] (24.55%), lightly oxygenated compounds [LOC] (48.37%) sesquiterpenes [S] (12.4%) and heavily oxygenated compounds [HOC] (13.46%). The LOC and M were found in higher amounts in comparison with HOC and S, respectively. The most significant compounds in LOC and M were cumin aldehyde and g-terpinene, respectively, while S and HOC were tetradecanes and α-terpinyl acetate, respectively. However, different groups for volatile components than those found in EOs of the Egyptian cultivar were reported in the literature [71].

Identification of essential oil composition of coriander seeds: GC Chromatograms revealed the presence of 35 peaks in Eos hydro-extracted from the tested coriander cultivar grown in Egypt of which nineteen compounds constituted 99.97% OF EOs. The major constituents were: translinalool (72.6%), sabinene hydrate (4.53%), α-Pinene (3%), ethylhexanoic acid <2-> (5.19%), p-cymen-8-ol (4.51%), nerol (1.1%), caryophyllene <9-epi-E> (2.71%) a -thujene (3.28%), camphor (0.27%) and Limonine (0.13%). In addition, the coriander seeds’ essential oil also contained considerable amounts of various minor constituents whose contribution was <0.7% (Table 6).

Results indicated that major compounds identified in Eos from seeds or tested coriander cultivars grown in Egypt are in accordance with the findings of various investigators for cultivars from different parts of the world, e.g., 68.14% in Argentina, 68.00% in Russia, 70.5% in Korea, 75.30% in India, 65% to 70% in Pakistan [53]. In contrast, there were reported differences in linalool proportion 54.57% in Cuba, 87.54% in India, 63.9% - 66.2% in Canada, 37.65% in Bangladesh, 58.22% in Brazil, 53.79% in South Korea, 55.59% in Pakistan, and in the number of separated compounds in GC chromatograms (35 compounds in Cuba, 24 components in India and 53 compounds in Bangladesh [72-81].

However, the major component and the other main components in EOs of seeds of the tested coriander cultivar were within the ranges for Linalool (between 65% - 78% of oil) and other components as indicated by both the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 2037/2007)and by International Standards Organization (ISO: 3516/ 1979) for coriander oil seeds. Regarding the groups of chemical constituents, EOs of the Egyptian coriander seeds mainly consisted of light oxygenated compounds (88.93%), followed by monoterpene hydrocarbons (8.27%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (2.7%) and heavy oxygenated compounds (0.06). Linalool was the main light-oxygenated compound, while thujene (3.28%) was the major monoterpene.

In agreement with the found results about groups of chemical constituents in EOs of the Egyptian coriander seeds, it was stated that EOs of seeds from the Indian cultivar of coriander rich in oxygenated monoterpenes, while the oxygenated monoterpenes, monoterpene hydrocarbon amounted to 80.47%, 6.45%, respectively [76]. Furthermore, EOs of seeds from the Pakastani cultivar of coriander mainly comprised oxygenated monoterpene hydrocarbons (80.83%), followed by monoterpene hydrocarbons (8.00%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (0.47%) and oxygenated sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (0.35%) [53]. In contrast, the presence of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons at a concentration over 13% in EOs of coriander seeds has been detected [82].

Identification of essential oil composition of whole basil herbs: GC Chromatograms of essential oils from the Egyptian cultivar of basil whole herb revealed that forty-seven com-pounds, representing 99.08% of the GC profile, were identified, where the major identified constituents (Table 7) were: linalool (54.01%), Kessane (10.02%), Germacrene D (4.4%), Terpin-4-ol (2.19%), Eugenol (1.75%), β-se-linene (4.4%), Cadina-1, 4-diene (1.54%), α-cadinene (0.84%), elmicine (1.46%), caryophyllene oxide (1.66%), viridiflorol (1.19%), humulene epoxide II (2.44%), 10-epi-g-eudesmol (4.01%) and α-sinensal (3.09%).

The EOs of basil herbs grown in Egypt were of the high Linalool-chemotype which is characterized by high contents of linalool and relatively lower amounts of eugenol (in the present they were 54.01% and 1.75%, respectively). It has been always reported that basil oils have a very variable chemical composition [65]. On this basis of the oil composition, basil accessions were divided into seven groups: 1) high-linalool chemotype, 2) lina-lool-eugenol chemotype, 3) methyl chavicol chemotype and no linalool 4) methyl chavicol-linalool chemotype, 5) methyl eugenol-linalool chemotype, 6) methyl cinnamate-linalool chemotype and bergamotene chemotype [83].

The obtained findings for the Egyptian basil cultivar that linalool was the main component and also had the highest proportion are in good agreement with various literature reports about Linalool chemotype cultivars grown in different parts of the world where Linalool was the main compound and of a high content (54% - 60%) in EOs of different basil types or cultivars (from Italy, from Bangladesh, from Bulgaria, from Spain and from Pakistan [84-86].

Lower or higher linalool percentages than that found in EOs from the Egyptian basil cultivar were reported in the literature for Linalool chemotype basil oil [49.7% in Brazilian basil cultivars, 71.4% in Bulgarian cultivar, 41.2% in Turkish basil, 43.8% in Algerian cultivar, of 44.18% in an Egyptian cultivar, 69.9% for Omani basil [87-90]. Moreover, the number of components isolated in GC chromatograms from EOs of the Egyptian basil cultivar (47 components) was either lower number 29 compounds in Pakistan, 33 components or higher number 59 components in Algeria and 75 in Omani basil [91,92].

The major component, its proportion, and the proportion of the other main components in EOs of the tested fresh basil herb cultivar were found different than those indicated by the Egyptian Specification Standards (ES: 1359/2007) and by the International Standards Organization (ISO: 11043/1998) for basil oil of methyl chavicol type. No specifications are present yet for basil oil of Linalool-chemo type.

Regarding the groups of chemical constituents, the majority of compounds in EOs from whole basil herbs grown in Egypt were light-oxygenated monoterpene compounds (LOC) (61.48%), sesquiterpene (S) (21.34%) and heavy oxygenated compounds (HOC) (15.98%). Monoterpenes (0.28%) were also present. The found results for classified chemical groups in Egyptian basil cultivar volatile oils compared well with literature reports that the oxygenated compounds were also the major constituent in Turkish basilicum volatile oils [92]. Pakistani basil EOs mainly consisted of oxygenated monoterpenes followed by sesquiterpenes hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenes. In addition, basil oil was found richer in oxygenated monoterpenes (49.15%), where linalool represents the most important compound in the genus [61,62].

In addition, it was stated that sweet basil oil is mainly composed of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and phenyl prostanoids [93]. The presence of monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpene, sesquiterpene hydro-carbons, oxygenated sesquiterpene, etc. in basil oils was ensured [9]. In fact, basil volatiles was characterized by the prevalence of oxygenated monoterpenoid compounds, the main constituent’s linalool, eugenol and eucalyptol [94,95].

The observed differences in the identity of major components, their proportion and in-group classification of these components between results of the three tested Egyptian cultivars of spices and herbs and those in literature reports could be attributed to various reasons and factors. For example, the geographic origin and region of the tested spices and herbs including plant part, harvest time, extraction method, type of cultivar, storage conditions and climatic effects on the plants eventually affect the chemical composition [61,69].

Spices and herbs always have been used for centuries for cooking and medical requirements. Spices improve the taste, smell a color of food and beverages; it also helps to protect human health from severe, long-lasting disease. In Egypt, more Egyptians bear in mind the use of spices for medical and therapeutic discoveries and their use in daily life. The tested seed spices and basil herbs and their extracted EOs, commonly cultivated and exported abroad in Egypt as collected from the export centers were chemically, microbiologically, and chromatographically characterized. Their characteristics were compared with those cultivated in different parts of the world and also to the Egyptian Standards and International Specifications (ISO) for seeds and EOs of cumin and coriander seeds as well as for basil herbs and were found to be within the limits for these specifications. The feature question is, what are the consequences of spices in human lives in the context of health and safety?

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